We then provide a brief description of the research base for ELD instruction and why it is so small. We begin with an explanation and discussion of ELD instruction, what it is and is not.
We have therefore seen a renewed focus on form (that is, "correct usage" of vocabulary, grammar, norms of interaction in particular circumstances, etc.) as a critical element of second-language instruction. 5 Advanced-ideally, to the point of native-like-English proficiency is imperative for English learners in the United States, indeed for any language-minority student whose future and livelihood will be influenced by his or her competence in the dominant social language. For example, second-language acquisition teachers, theorists, and researchers have realized that exposure and interaction might help promote fluency and communicative competence, but they are not sufficient for native-like proficiency. This, of course, does not necessarily mean that teachers are engaged in "wrong" practices, but rather that the standard wisdom of the field needs to be examined further through the lens of research. Teachers might note that some of the practices they have come to accept as standard or even exemplary might not be represented among the guidelines we report here. 4 Language in use is emphasized more than knowledge about language. 2 From this perspective, second-language learning is a social process in which language develops largely as a result of meaningful and motivated interaction with others, 3 much as a first language does. Currently, the dominant theoretical perspective of educators is "communicative language teaching." There are two primary tenets of communicative language teaching: (1) The goal of second-language education is to develop learners' communicative competence (more so than formal accuracy), and (2) communication is both a goal and means for developing language.
The result is a large body of accepted practices that are not adequately supported by research. In the absence of a comprehensive body of research, the field of ELD instruction has been driven mostly by theory. There is little that focuses specifically on K–12 ELD instruction for ELs in US schools. Using existing research to identify effective guidelines for ELD instruction is problematic. We focus on individual studies and research syntheses that point to how educators might provide effective ELD instruction-instruction that focuses specifically on helping English learners develop English language skills and that is delivered in a portion of the school day separate from the academic content that all students need to learn. Many resources, such as theory, ELD standards, practitioner experience, and published programs, might provide such guidance. This article synthesizes research that provides guidelines for ELD instruction. Many of the programs involved in these studies included ELD instruction, but studies sought to measure the effects of the program on academic achievement, primarily reading, rather than estimating the effects of ELD instruction on English language acquisition. Nichols decision affirming that English learners must be guaranteed a "meaningful education," controversy over bilingual versus English-only education has dominated research and policy discussions of ELs.
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